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CR 1: Introduction to Crystallization Technology

CR 1: Introduction to Crystallization Technology
     Part 1: Introduction to Industrial Crystallization
         1 INTRODUCTION
             1.1 The Economic Importance of Crystallization
             1.2 Subject Matter of This Review
         2 SOLID AND LIQUID PROPERTIES
             2.1 Introduction
             2.2 Solid-liquid Equilibrium
             2.3 Liquid Physical Properties
             2.4 Solid Phase Properties
                 2.4.1 Introduction
                 2.4.2 Crystal classes
                 2.4.3 Miller indices
                 2.4.4 Polymorphism
                 2.4.5 Crystal shape
                 2.4.6 Multiple crystals
                 2.4.7 Crystal purity
                 2.4.8 Physical properties
         3 CRYSTALLIZATION PLANT
             3.1 Introduction
             3.2 Crystallizer Product Specification
             3.3 Generation of Supersaturation
             3.4 Available Equipment
         4 CRYSTAL SIZE DISTRIBUTION AND DETERMINATION OF CRYSTALLIZATION
             4.1 Introduction
             4.2 Measurement of Crystal Size Distribution
             4.3 Expressions of Crystal Size Distribution
             4.4 Derivation of CSD in Crystallizers
                 4.4.1 The population balance
                 4.4.2 CSD in continuous crystallizers
                 4.4.3 CSD in batch crystallizers
             4.5 Experimental Determination of Crystallization Kinetics
         5 MECHANISMS AND SCALE-UP OF CRYSTALLIZATION RATE PROCESSES
             5.1 Introduction
             5.2 Nucleation
             5.3 Crystal Growth
             5.4 Other Rate Processes
                 5.4.1 Phase transition
                 5.4.2 Agglomeration
                 5.4.3 Impurity incorporation
         6 DESIGN OF CRYSTALLIZERS AND CRYSTALLIZATION OPERATION
             6.1 Introduction
             6.2 Crystallizer Modelling
             6.3 Particle Suspension
             6.4 Fouling
         7 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
         8 ABBREVIATIONS
         9 NOMENCLATURE
         10 REFERENCES
         11 APPENDIX
     Part 2: Glossary of Crystallization Terms
         1 GLOSSARY OF CRYSTALLIZATION TERMS
             1.1 A
                 1.1.1 Abegg, Stevens & Larson equation
                 1.1.2 Absorption freezing
                 1.1.3 Activation energy
                 1.1.4 Activity coefficient
                 1.1.5 Adductive crystallization
                 1.1.6 Ageing (of precipitates) - see Ostwald Ripening
                 1.1.7 Agglomerate
                 1.1.8 Agglomeration
                 1.1.9 Aggregate
                 1.1.10 Aggregation
                 1.1.11 Agitated vessel crystallizer
                 1.1.12 Agitator
                 1.1.13 Air-contact crystallizer
                 1.1.14 Anisotropy
                 1.1.15 Amorphous
                 1.1.16 Area shape factor - see shape factor.
                 1.1.17 Arrhenius equation
                 1.1.18 ASL equation
                 1.1.19 Attrition
             1.2 B
                 1.2.1 Batch crystallization
                 1.2.2 BCF model
                 1.2.3 Biological fouling
                 1.2.4 Bond chains theory.
                 1.2.5 Bravais lattice
                 1.2.6 Breakage
                 1.2.7 Bridgman-Stockbarger technique
                 1.2.8 Brix scale
                 1.2.9 Brodie purifier
             1.3 C
                 1.3.1 Caking of crystals
                 1.3.2 Calandria crystallizer
                 1.3.3 Cerny direct-contact cooling crystallizer
                 1.3.4 Characteristics, method of
                 1.3.5 Chemical potential
                 1.3.6 Circulating liquor crystallizer
                 1.3.7 Circulating magma crystallizer
                 1.3.8 CLA
                 1.3.9 CLO
                 1.3.10 Class I system
                 1.3.11 Class II system
                 1.3.12 Class, crystal
                 1.3.13 Classification
                 1.3.14 Classified product removal
                 1.3.15 Classified suspension classified product removal (CSCPR)
                 1.3.16 Classified suspension crystallizer
                 1.3.17 Clear-liquor advance (CLA)
                 1.3.18 Clear-liquor overflow (CLO)
                 1.3.19 Cluster
                 1.3.20 Coacervation
                 1.3.21 Coefficient of variation (CV)
                 1.3.22 Collision breeding
                 1.3.23 Colloid
                 1.3.24 Column crystallizer
                 1.3.25 Comminution
                 1.3.26 Common ion effect
                 1.3.27 Concentration driving force
                 1.3.28 Congruent melting point
                 1.3.29 Coning and quartering
                 1.3.30 Constitutional supercooling
                 1.3.31 Contact breeding
                 1.3.32 Continuous crystallization
                 1.3.33 Cooling crystallization
                 1.3.34 Co-precipitation
                 1.3.35 Coulter Counter
                 1.3.36 CPR
                 1.3.37 Critical nucleus size
                 1.3.38 Critical supersaturation
                 1.3.39 Cryohydrate
                 1.3.40 Crystal
                 1.3.41 Crystal size distribution (CSD)
                 1.3.42 CSCPR
                 1.3.43 CSD
                 1.3.44 Cut size
                 1.3.45 Cycling
                 1.3.46 Czochralski technique
             1.4 D
                 1.4.1 DDO
                 1.4.2 Dead space
                 1.4.3 Degree of agglomeration
                 1.4.4 Dendrites
                 1.4.5 Dewatering
                 1.4.6 Dewaxing
                 1.4.7 Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)
                 1.4.8 Differential thermal analysis (DTA)
                 1.4.9 Diffusion
                 1.4.10 Dilatometry
                 1.4.11 Direct contact cooling
                 1.4.12 Dislocation
                 1.4.13 Disruption
                 1.4.14 Double crystallizer
                 1.4.15 Double drawoff
                 1.4.16 Draft tube
                 1.4.17 Draft tube baffled (DTB) crystallizer
                 1.4.18 Driving force
                 1.4.19 Drowning-out
                 1.4.20 Drum crystallizer
                 1.4.21 DSC
                 1.4.22 DTA
                 1.4.23 DTB
             1.5 E
                 1.5.1 Edge dislocation
                 1.5.2 Effectiveness factor
                 1.5.3 Electrical sensing zone method (the Coulter principle)
                 1.5.4 Elutriation
                 1.5.5 Elzone counter
                 1.5.6 Embryo
                 1.5.7 Emulsion crystallization
                 1.5.8 Enantiomorphs
                 1.5.9 Enantiotropy
                 1.5.10 Encrustation
                 1.5.11 Equivalent diameter
                 1.5.12 Euler relationship
                 1.5.13 Eutectic
                 1.5.14 Extractive crystallization
             1.6 F
                 1.6.1 Facet
                 1.6.2 Falling film crystallizer
                 1.6.3 False grain
                 1.6.4 Fast reaction crystallization
                 1.6.5 FC
                 1.6.6 FD
                 1.6.7 Fick's Law
                 1.6.8 Fines
                 1.6.9 Fines destruction (FD)
                 1.6.10 Fines removal (FR)
                 1.6.11 Flash cooling crystallization
                 1.6.12 Flocculate
                 1.6.13 Flocculation
                 1.6.14 Fluidised bed crystallizer
                 1.6.15 Forced circulation (FC)
                 1.6.16 Fouling
                 1.6.17 FR
                 1.6.18 Fractional crystallization
                 1.6.19 Free solvent
                 1.6.20 Freeze crystallization
                 1.6.21 Frenkel defects
             1.7 G
                 1.7.1 Gel
                 1.7.2 Gibbs-Thomson effect
                 1.7.3 Groups
                 1.7.4 Growth
                 1.7.5 Growth rate dispersion
             1.8 H
                 1.8.1 Habit
                 1.8.2 Habit modification
                 1.8.3 Habit modifier
                 1.8.4 Heterogeneous nucleation
                 1.8.5 Hexagonal crystal system
                 1.8.6 High-order cycling
                 1.8.7 High yield system
                 1.8.8 Homogeneous nucleation
                 1.8.9 Hydration state
                 1.8.10 Hydrocyclone (or Hydroclone)
                 1.8.11 Hydrodynamics
                 1.8.12 Hydrothermal crystallization
             1.9 I
                 1.9.1 Impeller
                 1.9.2 Inclusion
                 1.9.3 Incongruent melting point
                 1.9.4 Indices
                 1.9.5 Induction time
                 1.9.6 Integration kinetics
                 1.9.7 Interpenetration twin
                 1.9.8 Invariant growth
                 1.9.9 Isoelectric point
                 1.9.10 Isokinetic sampling
                 1.9.11 Isotropy
             1.10 J
                 1.10.1 Juxtaposition twin
             1.11 K
                 1.11.1 Kinetics
                 1.11.2 Kinks
                 1.11.3 Kossel model
                 1.11.4 Krystal crystallizer
                 1.11.5 Kyropoulos technique
             1.12 L
                 1.12.1 Labile zone
                 1.12.2 Lamellae
                 1.12.3 Latent period
                 1.12.4 Lattice
                 1.12.5 Law of Stages
                 1.12.6 Lixiviation
                 1.12.7 Low-order cycling
                 1.12.8 Low yield system
             1.13 M
                 1.13.1 Macromixing
                 1.13.2 Magma
                 1.13.3 Magma density
                 1.13.4 Malvern sizer
                 1.13.5 McCabe's D L law
                 1.13.6 Metastable limit
                 1.13.7 Metastable zone
                 1.13.8 Micromixing
                 1.13.9 Microsieves
                 1.13.10 Miller indices
                 1.13.11 Mimetic twin
                 1.13.12 Mixed crystal
                 1.13.13 Mixed suspension classified product removal (MSCPR)
                 1.13.14 Mixed suspension mixed product removal (MSMPR)
                 1.13.15 Mixing criterion
                 1.13.16 Mohs scale
                 1.13.17 Moment
                 1.13.18 Monoclinic crystal system
                 1.13.19 Monotropy
                 1.13.20 Morphology
                 1.13.21 Mother liquor
                 1.13.22 MSCPR
                 1.13.23 MSMPR
                 1.13.24 Multiple-effect evaporator
             1.14 N
                 1.14.1 Natural cooling
                 1.14.2 Needles
                 1.14.3 Nernst potential
                 1.14.4 Newton Chambers process
                 1.14.5 Nucleation
                 1.14.6 Nucleation order
                 1.14.7 Nucleus
             1.15 O
                 1.15.1 Occlusion
                 1.15.2 Open tank crystallizer
                 1.15.3 Orthorhombic crystal system
                 1.15.4 Orthokinetic agglomeration
                 1.15.5 Oslo crystallizer
                 1.15.6 Ostwald-Freundlich effect
                 1.15.7 Ostwald ripening
                 1.15.8 Ostwald's Rule of Stages
                 1.15.9 Overgrowth
             1.16 P
                 1.16.1 Paddle
                 1.16.2 Parametral face
                 1.16.3 PBC theory
                 1.16.4 Periodic bond chain theory
                 1.16.5 Perikinetic agglomeration
                 1.16.6 Peritectic systems
                 1.16.7 Phase
                 1.16.8 Plug flow crystallizer
                 1.16.9 Polycrystal
                 1.16.10 Polymorphism
                 1.16.11 Polytypism
                 1.16.12 Pond crystallizer
                 1.16.13 Population balance method
                 1.16.14 Precipitation
                 1.16.15 Prilling
                 1.16.16 Primary nucleation
                 1.16.17 Proabd refiner
                 1.16.18 Programmed cooling
                 1.16.19 Pulse-column crystallizer
             1.17 Q
                 1.17.1 Quenching
             1.18 R
                 1.18.1 Re-dispersion
                 1.18.2 Reaction crystallization
                 1.18.3 Regular crystal system
                 1.18.4 Residence time
                 1.18.5 Residence time distribution (RTD)
                 1.18.6 Riffler
                 1.18.7 Ripening
                 1.18.8 Roll crystallizer
                 1.18.9 Rotating drum crystallizer
                 1.18.10 RTD
                 1.18.11 Rushton turbine
             1.19 S
                 1.19.1 Salting out
                 1.19.2 Saturation concentration.
                 1.19.3 Scaling
                 1.19.4 Scraped surface chiller
                 1.19.5 Secondary nucleation
                 1.19.6 Sedimentation balance
                 1.19.7 Seeding
                 1.19.8 Segregation coefficient
                 1.19.9 Shape factor
                 1.19.10 Short circuiting
                 1.19.11 Sieving
                 1.19.12 Size-dependent growth
                 1.19.13 Size dispersion
                 1.19.14 Size distribution
                 1.19.15 Slip velocity
                 1.19.16 Slurry density
                 1.19.17 Solar pond crystallizer
                 1.19.18 Solubility
                 1.19.19 Solvation state
                 1.19.20 Spherulite
                 1.19.21 Spray crystallization
                 1.19.22 Supersaturation
                 1.19.23 Surface integration
                 1.19.24 Survival theory
                 1.19.25 Sweated-pan crystallizer
                 1.19.26 System
             1.20 T
                 1.20.1 Tetragonal crystal system
                 1.20.2 Trigonal crystal system
                 1.20.3 TGA
                 1.20.4 Thermal ageing
                 1.20.5 Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)
                 1.20.6 Transformation
                 1.20.7 Triclinic crystal system
                 1.20.8 Triplet
                 1.20.9 Trough crystallizer
                 1.20.10 Turbidimetry
                 1.20.11 Turbine
                 1.20.12 Twaddell
                 1.20.13 Twin
                 1.20.14 Twin crystallizer
             1.21 V
                 1.21.1 Vacuum crystallization
                 1.21.2 Verneuil furnace technique
                 1.21.3 Volume shape factor
                 1.21.4 Votator
             1.22 W
                 1.22.1 Wash-out test
                 1.22.2 Wetted wall crystallizer
             1.23 X
                 1.23.1 X-ray diffraction
             1.24 Z
                 1.24.1 Zeta potential
                 1.24.2 Zone melting/purification/refining
                 1.24.3 Zwietering equation
         2 NOMENCLATURE OF RECOMMENDED CRYSTALLIZATION SYMBOLS
             2.1 Recommended Units
             2.2 Subscipts
             2.3 Superscripts
             2.4 Additional symbols for Industrial Crystallization
             2.5 Additional subscripts for Industrial Crystallization
         3 CONCENTRATION UNITS
     Part 4: Technological Update
         1. INTRODUCTION
         2. CRYSTALLIZATION PROCESS CHEMISTRY
         3. CRYSTALLIZER SELECTION
         4. CRYSTALLIZATION DESIGN AND MODELING
             4.1 Theory of Crystallization Design
             4.2 Scale-Up
             4.3 Mixing
             4.4 MSMPR Crystallizers
             4.5 Draft Tube Baffle (DTB) Crystallizers
             4.6 Oslo (Growth, Krystal) Crystallizers
         5. CRYSTALLIZATION APPLICATIONS
             5.1 Wall Wetted Double-Deck Jacket Crystallizer
             5.2 Double Draft Tube Crystallizer
             5.3 Membrane Crystallizer
             5.4 Sonocrystallization
                 5.4.1 Introduction
                 5.4.2 Innovations
         6. CRYSTALLIZER TROUBLESHOOTING
             6.1 Scale Formation
             6.2 Mixing Problems
             6.3 Seeding
             6.4 Scale-Up problems
             6.5 Crystal Size Cycling
         7. MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES
             7.1 Batch Operations
             7.2 Continuous Operations
         8. RECOMMENDED PROCEDURES
         9. CRYSTALLIZATION SOFTWARE
             9.1 Calculation and simulation tools
                 9.1.1 ConSol - Concentration and solubility data analysis
                 9.1.2 CrySim - Batch and continuous crystallizer simulation
             9.2 Decision making tools
                 9.2.1 CrySES - Crystal size troubleshooting expert system
                 9.2.2 Assistants
         10. REFERENCE DATA BASE
     Terms and Conditions of Use

Volume 1 contains an introduction to crystallization including a glossary of crystallization terms and an index to the crystallization reports.
This volume also provides explanations of the basic processes and principles of crystallization.

Volume CR I  Part 1 Introduction to industrial crystallization

Part 1 reviews industrial crystallization, providing a comprehensive and comprehensible introduction for the newcomer to this field. The report covers:

Solid and solution properties - a discussion of the thermodynamics of the crystallization process, including solution and crystal properties.

Crystallization plant - a description of various ways of specifying the product, methods of generating supersaturation and a review of common types of industrial crystallization equipment.

Characterisation of crystal size distribution and crystallization kinetics. Various ways of expressing crystal size and size distribution are described, along with common forms of the growth and nucleation rate equations. Scale up of the various rate processes is also discussed.

Design and operation of crystallizers - general guide-lines on how to design crystallization equipment to produce a particular product and how to design crystallization equipment to produce a particular product, and how to operate new or existing equipment.


Volume CR I  Part 2 Glossary of crystallization terms.
  • Definitions of commonly used crystallization terms.
  • Recommended nomenclature for crystallization quantities.
  • Conversion factors between different concentration and supersaturation units

Volume CR I  Part 3 Index.

This contains an index to the crystallization reports. There are no plans to update the index since all the Crystallization manual parts are available on-line using the BROWSE software.