BSH 3: Pneumatic Conveying
     Part 1: Systems and Components
         1. INTRODUCTION
             1.1 Summary
             1.2 Pneumatic Conveying
                 1.2.1 System Flexibility
                 1.2.2 Industries and Materials
             1.3 Modes of Conveying
                 1.3.1 Dilute Phase
                 1.3.2 Dense Phase
                 1.3.3 Conveying Parameters
             1.4 Recent Developments
                 1.4.1 System Types
             1.5 Conveying Capability
                 1.5.1 High Pressure Conveying
                 1.5.2 Long Distance Conveying
                 1.5.3 Vertical Conveying
                 1.5.4 Flow Rate Capability
             1.6 Definitions
                 1.6.1 Solids Loading Ratio
                 1.6.2 Dilute Phase Conveying
                 1.6.3 Dense Phase Conveying
                 1.6.4 Low Pressure and Negative Pressure (Vacuum) Conveying
                 1.6.5 High Pressure Conveying
                 1.6.6 Free Air Conditions
                 1.6.7 Superficial Air Velocity
                 1.6.8 Free Air Velocity
                 1.6.9 Minimum Conveying Air Velocity
                 1.6.10 Conveying Line Inlet Air Velocity
                 1.6.11 Conveying Line Exit Air Velocity
                 1.6.12 Saltation
                 1.6.13 Choking
                 1.6.14 Acceleration Length
                 1.6.15 Null Point
                 1.6.16 Specific Humidity
                 1.6.17 Relative Humidity
                 1.6.18 Stoichiometric Value
                 1.6.19 Pulsating Flow
                 1.6.20 Stepped Pipeline
                 1.6.21 Air Retention
                 1.6.22 Permeability
                 1.6.23 Hardness
                 1.6.24 Mohs' Scale
                 1.6.25 Brinell Hardness
                 1.6.26 Vickers Hardness
                 1.6.27 Transient
             1.7 System Requirements
                 1.7.1 Multiple Pick-up
                 1.7.2 Multiple Delivery
                 1.7.3 Multiple Pick-up and Delivery
                 1.7.4 Multiple Material Handling
                 1.7.5 Multiple Distance Conveying
                 1.7.6 Conveying from Stockpiles
                 1.7.7 Start-up with Full Pipeline
             1.8 Material Property Influences
                 1.8.1 Cohesive
                 1.8.2 Combustible
                 1.8.3 Damp or Wet
                 1.8.4 Electrostatic
                 1.8.5 Erosive
                 1.8.6 Friable
                 1.8.7 Granular
                 1.8.8 Hygroscopic
                 1.8.9 Low Melting Point
                 1.8.10 Radioactive
                 1.8.11 Toxic
                 1.8.12 Very Fine
             1.9 Dilute and Dense Phase Conveying Explained
                 1.9.1 Conveying Capability
                 1.9.2 Pressure Gradient
                 1.9.3 Material Conveying Characteristics
                 1.9.4 The Conveying of Cement
                 1.9.5 The Conveying of Alumina
                 1.9.6 The Conveying of Polyethylene Pellets
                 1.9.7 Material Characterisation
         2. CONVEYING SYSTEMS
             2.1 Introduction
             2.2 System Types
                 2.2.1 Open Systems
                 2.2.2 Staged Systems
                 2.2.3 Batch Conveying Systems
                 2.2.4 Mobile Systems
                 2.2.5 Closed Systems
                 2.2.6 Innovatory Systems
                 2.2.7 Fluidised Motion Conveying Systems
         3. PIPELINE FEEDING DEVICES
             3.1 Introduction
             3.2 Selection Considerations
                 3.2.1 Air Leakage
                 3.2.2 Pressure Drop
                 3.2.3 Maintenance
                 3.2.4 Material Properties
                 3.2.5 Devices Available
                 3.2.6 Feeding Requirements
             3.3 Rotary Valves
                 3.3.1 Drop-Through Valve
                 3.3.2 Alternative Designs
                 3.3.3 Discharge Period and Pulsations
                 3.3.4 Air Leakage
                 3.3.5 Air Venting
                 3.3.6 Entrainment Devices
                 3.3.7 Rotor Types
                 3.3.8 High Pressure Rotary Valves
                 3.3.9 Material Feed Rate
             3.4 Screw Feeders
                 3.4.1 The Simple Screw Feeder
                 3.4.2 High Pressure Design
             3.5 Venturi Feeders
                 3.5.1 Commercial Venturi Feeder
                 3.5.2 Flow Control
             3.6 Gate Lock Valves
             3.7 Suction Nozzles
                 3.7.1 Feed Rate Control
                 3.7.2 Flow Aids
                 3.7.3 Hopper Off-Loading
             3.8 Trickle Valves
             3.9 Blow Tanks
                 3.9.1 Basic Blow Tank Types
                 3.9.2 Single Blow Tank Systems
                 3.9.3 Feed Rate Control
                 3.9.4 Twin Blow Tank Systems
         4. AIR MOVERS
             4.1 Introduction
             4.2 Types of Air Mover
                 4.2.1 Aerodynamic Compressors
                 4.2.2 Positive Displacement Compressors
                 4.2.3 Staging
                 4.2.4 Specification of Air Movers
             4.3 Air Compression Effects
                 4.3.1 Delivery Temperature
                 4.3.2 Oil-Free Air
                 4.3.3 Water Removal
                 4.3.4 Air Drying
                 4.3.5 The Use of Plant Air
                 4.3.6 Power Requirements
             4.4 Pre-Cooling Systems
         5. GAS-SOLID SEPARATION DEVICES
             5.1 Introduction
                 5.1.1 Separation Requirements
                 5.1.2 Separation Mechanisms
                 5.1.3 Pressure Drop Considerations
             5.2 Dust Control
                 5.2.1 Particle Degradation
                 5.2.2 Dust Emission
             5.3 Separation Devices
                 5.3.1 Gravity Settling Chambers
                 5.3.2 Cyclone Separators
                 5.3.3 Filters
             5.4 System Considerations
                 5.4.1 Blow Tank Systems
                 5.4.2 Vacuum Conveying Systems
         6. PIPELINES AND VALVES
             6.1 Introduction
             6.2 Pipelines
                 6.2.1 Wall Thickness
                 6.2.2 Pipeline Material
                 6.2.3 Surface Finish
                 6.2.4 Bends
                 6.2.5 Steps
             6.3 Valves
                 6.3.1 Discharge Valves
                 6.3.2 Isolating Valves
                 6.3.3 Vent Line Valves
                 6.3.4 Flow Diversion
                 6.3.5 Flow Splitting
                 6.3.6 Non-Return Valves
             6.4 Rubber Hose
                 6.4.1 Erosive Wear and Particle Degradation
                 6.4.2 Pressure Drop
                 6.4.3 Conveying Cohesive Materials
         7. NOMENCLATURE
             7.1 Non-dimensional Parameters
             7.2 Superscripts
             7.3 Subscripts
             7.4 Prefixes
         8. REFERENCES
     Part 2: Gas-Solid Flows
         1. INTRODUCTION
         2. AIR FLOW RATE EVALUATION
             2.1 Introduction
                 2.1.1 Supply Pressure
                 2.1.2 Volumetric Flow Rate
                 2.1.3 The Influence of Velocity
                 2.1.4 Compressibility of Air
             2.2 Volumetric Flow Rate
                 2.2.1 Presentation of Equations
                 2.2.2 The Influence of Pipe Bore
                 2.2.3 The Ideal Gas Law
             2.3 The Influence of Pressure
                 2.3.1 System Influences
                 2.3.2 Velocity Determination
             2.4 Stepped Pipeline Systems
                 2.4.1 Step Location
                 2.4.2 Dilute Phase Conveying
                 2.4.3 Dense Phase Conveying
                 2.4.4 Vacuum Conveying
                 2.4.5 Pipeline Staging
             2.5 Pipeline Purging
             2.6 The Influence of Temperature
                 2.6.1 Conveyed Material Influences
             2.7 The Influence of Altitude
                 2.7.1 Atmospheric Pressure
             2.8 The Use of Air Mass Flow Rate
         3. AIR ONLY RELATIONSHIPS
             3.1 Introduction
             3.2 Pipeline Pressure Drop
                 3.2.1 Flow Parameters and Properties
                 3.2.2 Pressure Drop Relationships
                 3.2.3 Air Only Pressure Drop Datum
             3.3 Venturi Analysis
                 3.3.1 Atmospheric Pressure Applications
                 3.3.2 High Pressure Applications
             3.4 Air Flow Rate Control
                 3.4.1 Nozzles
                 3.4.2 Orifice Plates
                 3.4.3 Flow Rate Control
         4. CONVEYING CHARACTERISTICS
             4.1 Introduction
                 4.1.1 Conveying Characteristics
                 4.1.2 Conveying Mode
             4.2 Single Phase Flow
                 4.2.1 The Darcy Equation for Pressure Drop
                 4.2.2 The Use of Air Mass Flow Rate
             4.3 Material Conveying
                 4.3.1 The Influence of Conveyed Solids on Pressure Drop
                 4.3.2 Evaluation of Velocity
                 4.3.3 Conveying Limitations
                 4.3.4 Conveying Air Velocity Effects
                 4.3.5 Solids Loading Ratio
             4.4 The Determination of Conveying Characteristics
                 4.4.1 Instrumentation and Control
                 4.4.2 Experimental Plan
                 4.4.3 Presentation of Results
                 4.4.4 Determination of Minimum Conveying Conditions
                 4.4.5 The Use of Conveying Characteristics
             4.5 Energy Considerations
                 4.5.1 The Influence of Conveying Air Velocity
                 4.5.2 Power Requirements
                 4.5.3 Specific Energy
             4.6 Component Pressure Drop Relationships
                 4.6.1 Conveying Vertically Down
                 4.6.2 Conveying Vertically Up
                 4.6.3 Horizontal Pipelines
                 4.6.4 Pipeline Bends
         5. CONVEYING CAPABILITY
             5.1 Introduction
             5.2 The Influence of Materials
                 5.2.1 Low Pressure Conveying - Part I
                 5.2.2 Low Pressure Conveying - Part II
                 5.2.3 High Pressure Conveying - Part I
                 5.2.4 High Pressure Conveying - Part II
         6. MATERIAL PROPERTY INFLUENCES
             6.1 Introduction
             6.2 Conveying Modes
                 6.2.1 Dilute Phase Suspension Flow
                 6.2.2 Dense Phase Sliding Bed Flow
                 6.2.3 Dense Phase Plug Flow
             6.3 Conveying Capability Correlations
                 6.3.1 Basic Property Classifications
                 6.3.2 Aeration Property Classification
             6.4 Material Grade Influences
                 6.4.1 Alumina
                 6.4.2 Fly Ash
                 6.4.3 Dicalcium Phosphate
             6.5 Material Degradation Effects
                 6.5.1 Granulated Sugar
                 6.5.2 Soda Ash
         7. NOMENCLATURE
             7.1 Symbols
             7.2 Non-dimensional Parameters
             7.3 Superscripts
             7.4 Subscripts
             7.5 Prefixes
         8. REFERENCES
     Part 3: System Design
         1. INTRODUCTION
             1.1 Summary
         2. PIPELINE SCALING PARAMETERS
             2.1 Introduction
             2.2 Scaling Requirements
                 2.2.1 Conveying Air Velocity
                 2.2.2 Solids Loading Ratio
             2.3 Conveying Distance
                 2.3.1 Minimum Conveying Air Velocity
                 2.3.2 Scaling
             2.4 Pipeline Bore
                 2.4.1 Empty Line Pressure Drop
                 2.4.2 Scaling Model
                 2.4.3 Scaling Procedure
             2.5 Pipeline Bends
                 2.5.1 Equivalent Length
                 2.5.2 Bend Geometry
             2.6 Vertical Pipelines
                 2.6.1 Conveying Vertically Up
                 2.6.2 Conveying Vertically Down
                 2.6.3 Inclined Pipelines
             2.7 Pipeline Material
                 2.7.1 Rubber Hose
                 2.7.2 Comparison with Steel
         3. DESIGN PROCEDURES
             3.1 Introduction
             3.2 The Use of Equations in System Design
                 3.2.1 Logic Diagram for System Design
                 3.2.2 Logic Diagram for System Capability
             3.3 The Use of Test Data in System Design
                 3.3.1 Logic Diagram for System Design
                 3.3.2 Logic Diagram for System Capability
         4. SYSTEM DESIGN USING DATA
             4.1 Introduction
             4.2 Dense Phase Conveying of Cement
                 4.2.1 Conveying Data
                 4.2.2 Conveying Duty
                 4.2.3 Conveying Capability
                 4.2.4 Summary
                 4.2.5 Procedure
             4.3 Dilute Phase Conveying of Magnesium Sulphate
                 4.3.1 Conveying Data
                 4.3.2 Conveying Duty
                 4.3.3 Conveying Capability
                 4.3.4 Summary
                 4.3.5 Procedure
         5. FIRST APPROXIMATION METHODS
             5.1 Introduction
                 5.1.1 Methods Presented
             5.2 Air Only Pressure Drop Method
                 5.2.1 Basic Equations
                 5.2.2 Derived Relationships
                 5.2.3 Empirical Relationships
                 5.2.4 Working Relationships
                 5.2.5 Procedure
             5.3 Universal Conveying Characteristics Method
                 5.3.1 Straight Pipeline
                 5.3.2 Pipeline Bends
                 5.3.3 Minimum Conveying Air Velocity
                 5.3.4 Operating Point
                 5.3.5 Air Only Pressure Drop
                 5.3.6 Procedure
         6. STEPPED PIPELINES
             6.1 Introduction
             6.2 Conveying Air Velocity
                 6.2.1 Compressibility of Air
             6.3 Stepped Pipeline Systems
                 6.3.1 Step Location
                 6.3.2 Dilute Phase Conveying
                 6.3.3 Dense Phase Conveying
                 6.3.4 Vacuum Conveying
                 6.3.5 Step Position
             6.4 Pipeline Staging
             6.5 Pipeline Purging
                 6.5.1 Dense Phase Conveying
             6.6 Conveying Performance
                 6.6.1 Fine Fly Ash
                 6.6.2 Existing Systems
                 6.6.3 Other Materials
             6.7 First Approximation Design
                 6.7.1 Pressure Drop Elements
                 6.7.2 Pressure and Velocity Profiles
                 6.7.3 Cases Considered
         7. MULTIPLE USE SYSTEMS
             7.1 Introduction
             7.2 Multiple Material Handling
                 7.2.1 Air Supply Control
                 7.2.2 Material Flow Control
             7.3 Multiple Delivery Points
                 7.3.1 Material Influences
             7.4 Use of Stepped Pipelines
                 7.4.1 Flour and Sugar
                 7.4.2 Alumina
                 7.4.3 Pulverised Fuel Ash
                 7.4.4 Step Location
         8. NOMENCLATURE
             8.1 Symbols
             8.2 Non-dimensional Parameters
             8.3 Superscripts
             8.4 Subscripts
                 8.4.1 Prefixes
             8.5 References
         9. REFERENCES
     Part 4: System Operation
         1. INTRODUCTION
         2. MATERIAL FLOW RATE PROBLEMS
             2.1 Introduction
             2.2 Pipeline Blockage
                 2.2.1 General
                 2.2.2 On Commissioning
                 2.2.3 On Start Up
                 2.2.4 After a Period of Time
                 2.2.5 With New Material
                 2.2.6 With Change of Distance
         3. OPTIMISING AND UP-RATING EXISTING SYSTEMS
             3.1 Introduction
                 3.1.1 Optimising Conveying Conditions
                 3.1.2 Modifying Plant Components
                 3.1.3 Replacing Plant Components
             3.2 System Not Capable of Duty
                 3.2.1 Material Feeding
                 3.2.2 Air Filtration
                 3.2.3 Reduce Air Flow Rate
             3.3 Optimising Existing Systems
                 3.3.1 Control and Instrumentation
                 3.3.2 Feeder Considerations
                 3.3.3 The Use of a Sight Glass
                 3.3.4 Off-Take Systems
             3.4 Case Study
                 3.4.1 The Influence of Changing Air Flow Rate
                 3.4.2 The Influence of Changing Pipeline Diameter
             3.5 Alternative Methods of Up-Rating
                 3.5.1 Pipeline Feeding
                 3.5.2 Pipeline Modifications
                 3.5.3 Air Supply Pressure
         4. GENERAL OPERATING PROBLEMS
             4.1 Introduction
                 4.1.1 Existing Plant
             4.2 Types of System
                 4.2.1 Positive Pressure Systems
                 4.2.2 Negative Pressure Systems
                 4.2.3 Combined Systems
                 4.2.4 Fan Systems
                 4.2.5 Single Plug Blow Tank Systems
             4.3 System Components
                 4.3.1 Blowers
                 4.3.2 Blow Tanks
                 4.3.3 Rotary Valves
                 4.3.4 Filters
                 4.3.5 Vacuum Nozzles
             4.4 System Related
                 4.4.1 Altitude
                 4.4.2 Condensation
                 4.4.3 Electrostatics
                 4.4.4 Erosive Wear
                 4.4.5 Explosions
                 4.4.6 Pipeline Purging
                 4.4.7 Plant Wear
                 4.4.8 Temperature Variations
             4.5 Material Related
                 4.5.1 Angel Hairs
                 4.5.2 Coating of Pipelines
                 4.5.3 Cohesive Materials
                 4.5.4 Consolidation of Materials
                 4.5.5 Degradation of Materials
                 4.5.6 Granular Materials
                 4.5.7 Hygroscopic Materials
                 4.5.8 Large Particles
                 4.5.9 Material Grade
                 4.5.10 Temperature
                 4.5.11 Wet Materials
         5. EROSIVE WEAR
             5.1 Introduction
             5.2 Influence of Variables
                 5.2.1 Impact Angle and Surface Material
                 5.2.2 Velocity
                 5.2.3 Particle Size
                 5.2.4 Particle Hardness
                 5.2.5 Surface Material
                 5.2.6 Solids Loading Ratio
             5.3 Industrial Solutions and Practical Issues
                 5.3.1 Pipeline Considerations
                 5.3.2 Bend Wear
                 5.3.3 Wear Patterns and Deflecting Flows
                 5.3.4 Wear of Straight Pipeline
         6. PARTICLE DEGRADATION
             6.1 Introduction
                 6.1.1 Particle Breakage
                 6.1.2 Operating Problems
             6.2 Influence of Variables
                 6.2.1 Velocity
                 6.2.2 Particle Size
                 6.2.3 Surface Material
                 6.2.4 Particulate Material
                 6.2.5 Particle Impact Angle
             6.3 Recommendations and Practical Issues
                 6.3.1 Particle Velocity
                 6.3.2 Particle Impact Angle
                 6.3.3 Bend Material
             6.4 Pneumatic Conveying Data
                 6.4.1 Experimental Details
                 6.4.2 Materials Tested
                 6.4.3 Conveying Details
                 6.4.4 Test Results
             6.5 Particle Melting
                 6.5.1 Mechanics of the Process
                 6.5.2 Influence of Variables
                 6.5.3 Pipeline Treatment
         7. MOISTURE AND CONDENSATION
             7.1 Introduction
             7.2 Humidity
                 7.2.1 Specific Humidity
                 7.2.2 Relative Humidity
                 7.2.3 Universal Model
             7.3 Air Processes
                 7.3.1 Heating
                 7.3.2 Cooling
                 7.3.3 Compressing
                 7.3.4 Compression and Cooling
                 7.3.5 Expanding
                 7.3.6 Drying
         8. HEALTH AND SAFETY
             8.1 Introduction
                 8.1.1 System Integration
             8.2 Dust Risks
                 8.2.1 Dust Emission
                 8.2.2 Explosion Risks
             8.3 Conveying Systems
                 8.3.1 Closed Systems
                 8.3.2 Open Systems
             8.4 System Components
                 8.4.1 Blowers and Compressors
                 8.4.2 Pipeline Feeding
             8.5 Conveying Operations
                 8.5.1 Tramp Materials
                 8.5.2 Static Electricity
                 8.5.3 Particle Attrition
                 8.5.4 Erosive Wear
                 8.5.5 Material Deposition
                 8.5.6 Power Failure
             8.6 Explosion Protection
                 8.6.1 Minimising Sources and Prevention of Ignition
                 8.6.2 Containment
                 8.6.3 Explosion Relief Venting
                 8.6.4 Detection and Suppression
                 8.6.5 Secondary Explosions
                 8.6.6 Determination of Explosion Parameters
         9. NOMENCLATURE
             9.1 Symbols
             9.2 Non-Dimensional Parameters
             9.3 Superscripts
             9.4 Subscripts
             9.5 Prefixes
             9.6 References
         10. REFERENCES
     Part 5: A review of vacuum and pressurised air systems for wet bulk solids transport
         SUMMARY
         1. INTRODUCTION
             1.1 Wet bulk solids
             1.2 Parts of a Pneumatic Conveying System
             1.3 Classification of Air Transport Systems
         2. SYSTEMS FOR WET PARTICULATE SOLIDS
             2.1 General Principles
                 2.1.1 Mechanism of pneumatic conveying
                 2.1.2 Material characteristics
                 2.1.3 Dense-phase flow and particle size
             2.2 Vacuum Systems
                 2.2.1 Summary overview
                 2.2.2 Feeder systems
                 2.2.3 Product discharge systems
             2.3 Low Positive Pressure Systems
                 2.3.1 Summary overview
                 2.3.2 Feeder systems
             2.4 High Pressure Systems
                 2.4.1 Summary overview
                 2.4.2 Feeder systems
             2.5 Other features and special systems
                 2.5.1 Types of air prime mover
                 2.5.2 By-passes and supplementary air injection
                 2.5.3 Stepped pipelines
         3. PROBLEMS IN PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS FOR WET BULK SOLIDS
             3.1 Deposition
             3.2 Blockage
             3.3 Attrition
             3.4 Erosion
             3.5 Safety hazards: fire and explosion
         4. SELECTION AND DESIGN FOR WET BULK SOLIDS
             4.1 Current Industrial Practice for Wet Bulk Solids
             4.2 Design Procedure
                 4.2.1 Pipeline route
                 4.2.2 Material characteristics
                 4.2.3 Design procedure for a dilute-phase system
                 4.2.4 Design of dense-phase systems
             4.3 Operational Aspects
         5. CASE STUDIES
             5.1 Conveying of Coal
             5.2 Other carbon-based materials
             5.3 Foodstuffs
             5.4 Pneumatic conveying dryers
         6. RESEARCH REQUIREMENTS
         7. NOMENCLATURE
         8. REFERENCES
         9. SUPPLIERS OF PNEUMATIC CONVEYING SYSTEMS

• Part 1 Vacuum and Pressurised Air Systems for Wet Bulk Solids Transport

Volume BSH 3: Part 1 Vacuum and Pressurised Air Systems for Bulk Solids Transport

Pneumatic conveying systems are now widely used for the transfer of usually dry bulk solids, using either a lean-phase or dense-phase operation. Both compressed air and vacuum systems are used. Although many of these systems undoubtedly also perform well when the solids contain significant moisture, causing the solids to increase both their cohesion and adhesive forces, it is not clear at what point further increases in moisture will cause operational problems, such as unreliable flow or even blockage. This part attempts to discuss this cross-over point.